Outlaw
Motorcycle Club
This article is about non-AMA sanctioned
motorcycle clubs. For the club established in McCook, Illinois in 1935, see Outlaws Motorcycle Club. For general types of motorcycling groups, see Motorcycle club.
An outlaw motorcycle club (sometimes known as a motorcycle gang or biker gang)
is a motorcycle subculture which has its roots in the immediately post-World
War II era of American society. It is generally centered around the use of cruiser motorcycles, particularly Harley-Davidsons and choppers,
and a set of ideals which celebrate freedom, nonconformity to mainstream
culture and loyalty to the biker group.
In
the United States, such motorcycle clubs are considered "outlaw" as they are not sanctioned by
the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) and do not adhere to the AMA's rules.
Instead the clubs have their own set of bylaws from which the values of the
outlaw biker culture arise.[1][2][3][4][5]
Organization and leadership
While
organizations may vary, the typical internal organization of a motorcycle club
consists of a president, vice president, treasurer,secretary, road captain, and sergeant-at-arms.[6] Localized groups of a single, large MC are
called chapters or charters, and the first chapter established for an MC is
referred to as the mother chapter. The president of the mother chapter serves as
the president of the entire MC, and sets club policy on a variety of issues.
Membership
In
some "biker" clubs, as part of becoming a full member, an individual
must pass a vote of the membership and swear some level of allegiance to the club. Some clubs have a unique
club patch (or patches) adorned with the term MC that are worn on the rider's
vest, known as colors.
In
these clubs, some amount of hazing may occur during the prospecting period, ranging
from the mandatory performance of menial labor tasks for full patch members to
sophomoric pranks, and, in rare cases with some outlaw motorcycle gangs, acts
of violence.[7] During this time, the prospect may wear the club
name on the back of their vest, but not the full logo, though this practice may
vary from club to club. To become a full member, the prospect or probate must
be voted on by the rest of the full club members. Successful admission usually
requires more than a simple majority, and some clubs may reject a prospect or a
probate for a single dissenting vote. A formal induction follows, in which the
new member affirms his loyalty to the club and its members. The final logo
patch is then awarded. Full members are often referred to as "full patch
members" or "patchholders" and the step of attaining full
membership can be referred to as "being patched."[8]
Biker culture
Outlaw
motorcycle clubs who identify with this subculture are not necessarily
criminals, with members expressing their outlaw status on a social level, and
not necessarily equating the word outlaw with criminal activity.[1][2][3][4][5]
There
are also non-outlaw motorcycle clubs, such as the Harley Owners Group and women's motorcycle clubs, who adopt similar insignia, colors,
organizational structure and trappings, like beards and leather outfits which
are typical of outlaw clubs, and make it difficult for outsiders to tell the
difference between the two. It has been said that these others groups are
attracted by the mystique of the outlaw image whilst objecting to the
suggestion that they are outlaws.[9][10]
Charity events
Outlaw
clubs are often prominent at charity events, such as toy runs. Charitable
giving is frequently cited as evidence that these clubs do not deserve their
negative media image. Outlaw clubs have, however, been accused of using charity
rides to mask their criminal nature.[11][12][13] The American Motorcyclist Association has
frequently complained of the bad publicity for motorcycling in general caused
by outlaw clubs, and they have said that the presence of outlaw clubs at
charity events has actually harmed the needy by driving down public
participation and reducing donations.[14] Events such as a 2005 shootout between rival
outlaw gangs in the midst of a charity toy drive in California have raised
fears around the participation of biker clubs in charity events.[15][16] Authorities have attempted to ban outlaw clubs
from charity events, or to restrict the wearing of colors at events in order to
avert the sort of inter-club violence that has happened at previous charity
runs.[17][18] In 2002 the Warlocks MC of Pennsylvania sued
over their exclusion from a charity event.[19]
Identification
The
primary visual identification of a member of an outlaw motorcycle club is the
vest adorned with a large club-specific patch or patches, predominantly located
in the middle of the back. The patch(es) will contain a club logo, the name of
the club, and the letters MC, and a possible state, province, or other chapter
identification. This garment and the patches themselves are referred to as the colors or cut (a term taken from the early practice of cutting
the collars and/or sleeves from a denim or leather jacket). However, many
non-outlaw motorcycle riding clubs such as the Harley Owners Group also wear patches on the back of their vests, with or without
including the letters MC.
The
club patches always remain property of the club itself, not the member, and
only members are allowed to wear the club's patches. Hang-arounds and/or
support clubs wear support patches with the club's colors. A member must
closely guard their colors, for allowing one's colors to fall into the hands of
an outsider is an act of disgrace and may result in loss of membership in a
club, or some other punishment.[citation needed]
One, two, and three
piece patches
The
colors worn by members of some motorcycle clubs will sometimes follow a
convention of using either a one-piece patch for nonconformist social clubs,
two-piece patch for clubs paying dues, a three-piece patch for outlaw clubs or side patches. The three-piece patch consists of the club logo and the top and bottom patches, usually
crescent shaped, which are referred to as rockers. The number and arrangement
of patches is somewhat indicative of the nature of the club. Though many
motorcycle clubs wear the three-piece patch arrangement, this is not
necessarily an indication that a club is an outlaw motorcycle club.
Law
enforcement agencies have confiscated colors and other club paraphernalia of these types of clubs when they raid a
clubhouse or the home of an MC member, and they often display these items at
press conferences.[20] These items are then used at trial to support
prosecution assertions that MC members perform criminal acts on behalf of their
club. Courts have found that the probative value of such items is far outweighed by their prejudicial effects on the defense.[21]
One percenter
Some
outlaw motorcycle clubs can be distinguished by a 1% patch worn on the colors.
This is claimed to be a reference to a comment made by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) in which they stated that 99% of
motorcyclists were law-abiding citizens, implying that the last one percent
were outlaws. As a result, some outlaw motorcycle clubs used it to unite or
express themselves and are commonly referred to as "one percenters". The comment, supposedly a response to the Hollister riot in 1947,[22][23] is denied by the AMA—who claim to have no record
of such a statement to the press, and that the story is a misquote.[24]
Other patches
Other
patches may be worn by members, including phrases and symbols. The style or
meaning of these other patches can vary between clubs. Some, such as a skull
and crossbones patch, or the motto "Respect Few, Fear None", are worn
in some clubs by members who commit murder or other acts of violence on behalf
of the club.[26][27][28][29]
There
are also wings or biker's wings which are earned
something like jump wings or pilot's wings, but with various color-coded meanings, e.g. in
some clubs, it is said that a member who has had sex with a woman with venereal
disease can wear green wings,[30][31] while purple wingsindicate
having had sex with a corpse.[32][29] However, it has also been suggested that these
definitions are a hoax, intended to make fools of those outside the
outlaw biker world, and also to serve the purpose of provoking outrage among
the square public and authorities.[33]
Frequently,
additional patches may involve the use of Nazi symbols, such as swastikas or the SS death's head. These generally do not
indicate Nazi sympathies, but serve to express the outlaw biker's total
rejection of social constraints, and desire for the shock value among those who
fail to understand the biker way.[34][35]
Gender and race
Most
one-percenter MCs (OMCs) do not allow women to become full-patch members.[36][37][38][39] Rather, in some 1%er clubs, women have in the
past been portrayed as submissive or victims to the men,[40] treated as property, forced into prostitution or
street-level drug trafficking, and often physically and sexually abused,[41] their roles as being those of obedient followers
and their status as objects. These women are claimed to pass over any pay they
receive to their partners or sometimes to the entire club.[42] This appears to make these groups extremely
gender segregated,[43] however, this has not always been the case as,
for example, during the 1950s and 60s some Hells Angels chapters had women
members[44]
Recent
academic research has criticized the methodology of such previous studies as
being "vague and hazy", and lacking in participant demographics.[45] Such reports may have made clear statements and
authoritative analyses about the role of women associate with OMCs but few
state how they have come to such conclusions, one admitting that, “[his]
interviews with biker women were limited least [his] intentions were
misinterpreted” by their male companions[46] and that the such views of women are mythic and
"sexist research" in itself, using deeply flawed methodologies and
serve two highly political purposes of maintaining a dominance myth of women by
men and amplifying the deviance of OMC men.[45]
These
myths about OMC women being that they are subservient working class woman, used
as objects for club sexual rituals, are hard bitten, unattractive, and
politically conservative, and 'money makers' for the biker men and clubs, i.e.
prostitutes, topless barmaids or strippers who are forced to hand over their
money to the club.[47] A recent paper notes the changing role of women
within OMGs in recent times[48] and another states that they now have agency,
political savvy and have reframed the narratives of their lives. “We did it. We
showed them we are real women dealing with real men. I'd much prefer to be
living with an OMC member than some dork who is a pawn in the system“ stated
one woman who felt she and her peers had "set the record straight".[49] One such woman even went as far as to described
the previous work done by men about women in the OMC world as “the men that
wrote that must be meatheads”.[45] They are part of the scene because they want to
be and enjoy it. These women have broken from society's stereotypically defined
roles and find freedom with the biker world.[50]
Female
partners, sisters, mothers, aunties and children, particularly female children,
are often the central meaning of an OMC member's life. In the vast majority of
cases, the children and partners of the OMC members are the reason for their
existence as men and their job, as a man, is to protect the women and children.
Their women are fiercely proud to be partners of OMC members.[45]
Outlaw
motorcycle clubs reflect their social roots and the demographics of
motorcyclists in general. High profile outlaw bikers have historically been White and their clubs are typically but not
exclusively racially homogeneous.[51][52][53][54] It is claimed that racial discrimination within
clubs has led to creation of rival clubs in past, such as the Mongols Motorcycle Club after members were rejected by the local Hells Angels chapter,[55] although many clubs or individual chapters
are now multi-racial.
Outlaw motorcycle clubs and crime
Some
members of outlaw motorcycle clubs engage in criminal activities and organized
crime.[56] Besides their connection with motorcycles and
the one percenter subculture, such individuals and motorcycle clubs are seen by law
enforcement agencies as being unique among groups carrying out crimes because
they maintain websites, identify themselves through patches and tattoos, have
written constitutions and bylaws, trademark their club names and logos, even
carry out publicity campaigns aimed at cleaning up their public image.[51][11]
There
exists on an international level an ongoing conflictual environment between
OMCs and the states of the nations in which they reside within which many
unhelpful misconceptions and falsehoods are propagated for political purposes.
These are used to amplify the deviance of the whole subculture and help define
such motorcyclists as 'Outsiders'[57], 'evil doers'[58] and deviants rather than permitting diversity
within society.[45]
Outlaw motorcycle gangs
The
U.S. Department of Justice defines the term "Outlaw Motorcycle
Gang" (OMG) as an organization whose members use their motorcycle clubs as
"conduits for criminal enterprises".[56] Both the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Criminal Intelligence Service Canada have designated four MCs as "Outlaw
Motorcycle Gangs"; the Hells Angels,
the Pagans, the Outlaws, and the Bandidos,[59][60] known as the "Big Four".[61] These four have a large enough national impact
to be prosecuted under the Federal Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) statute.[62] The California Attorney General also lists the Mongols and the Vagos Motorcycle Club as outlaw motorcycle gangs.[63][64]
The
FBI asserts that OMGs support themselves primarily through drug dealing, trafficking in stolen goods, and extortion, and that they fight over territory and the illegal drug trade[65]and collect $1 billion in illegal income
annually.[66][67][68][69][70][71] In 1985[72] a three-year, eleven-state FBI operation named
Roughrider culminated in the largest OMG bust in history, with the confiscation
of $2 million worth of illegal drugs,
as well as an illegal arsenal of weapons, ranging from Uzi submachine guns to
antitank weapons.[73] In October, 2008, the FBI announced the end of a
6-month undercover operation by agents into the narcotics trafficking by the
Mongols Motorcycle Club. The bust went down with 160 search warrants and 110
arrest warrants[74]
Canada,
especially, has in the past two decades experienced a significant upsurge in
crime involving outlaw motorcycle clubs, most notably in what has been dubbed
the Quebec Biker war, which has involved more than 150 murders[75] (plus a young bystander killed by an exploding car bomb), 84 bombings, and 130 cases of arson.[76] The increased violence in Canada has been
attributed to turf wars over the illegal drug trafficking business, specifically relating to access to the Port of Montreal,[77] but also as the Hells Angels have sought to
obtain control of the street level trade from other rival and/or independent
gangs in various regions of Canada.[78] The Royal Canadian Mounted Police Gazette, quoting from the Provincial Court of Manitoba, defines these groups as: "Any group of motorcycle
enthusiasts who have voluntarily made a commitment to band together and abide
by their organizations' rigorous rules enforced by violence, who engage in activities that bring them and
their club into serious conflict with society and the law".[76]
Members
and supporters of these clubs insist that illegal activities are isolated
occurrences and that they, as a whole, are not criminal organizations. They
often compare themselves to police departments, wherein the occasional
"bad cop" does not make a police department a criminal organization
and the Hells Angels sponsors charitable events forToys for Tots in an attempt to legitimize themselves with
public opinion.[79]
Contrary
to other criminal organizations, OMGs operate on an individual basis instead of
top-down, which is how supporters can claim that only some members are
committing crimes. Belonging guarantees to each member the option of running
criminal activity, using other members as support - the main characteristic of
OMGs being "amoral individualism" in contrast to the hierarchical
orders and bonds of "amoral familism" of other criminal organizations
such as the Mafia.[80] ATF agent William Queen, who infiltrated the Mongols, wrote that what makes
a group like them different from the Mafia is that crime and violence are not used as expedients in pursuit
of profit, but that the priorities are reversed. Mayhem and lawlessness are
inherent in living "The Life" and the money they obtain by illegal
means is only wanted as a way to perpetuate that lifestyle.[81]
Recently,
authorities have tried tactics aimed at undermining the gang identity and
breaking up the membership. But in June 2011 the High Court of Australia overturned a law that outlawed motorcycle clubs and required
members to avoid contact with one another.[82] In the US, a Federal judge rejected a
prosecutor's request to seize ownership of theMongols Motorcycle Club logo and name, saying the government had no right to the
trademarks.[83][84] Federal prosecutors had requested, as part of a
larger criminal indictment, a court order giving the government ownership of
the logo in order to prevent members from wearing the gang's colors.[85]
Relationships between outlaw motorcycle clubs
Certain
large one-percent MCs have rivalry between each other and will fight over
territory and other issues. Sometimes smaller clubs are forced into or
willingly accept supportive roles for a larger one-percent club and are
sometimes required to wear a "support patch" on their vests that
shows their affiliation with the dominant regional club. Smaller clubs are
often allowed to form with the permission of the dominant regional club. Clubs
which resist have been forcibly disbanded by being told to hand over their
colors or the threat of aggression.[86][87][88] However, modern day club members tend to be
older veterans and, given the cost of ownership of a Harley Davidson type
motorcycle, increasingly well-to-do.
In
Australia[89] and the United States, many MCs have established
state-wide MC coalitions.[90] These coalitions are composed of MCs who have
chapters in the state, and the occasional interested third party organization,
and hold periodic meetings on neutral ground where representatives from each
club meet in closed session to resolve disputes between clubs and discuss
issues of common interest. Local coalitions or confederations of clubs have
eliminated some of the inter-club rivalry and together they have acted to hire
legal and PR representation.[91][90]
Cultural influence
Outlaw
motorcyclists and their clubs have been frequently portrayed and parodied to the point of victimization in movies and the media
generally, giving rise to an "outlaw biker film" genre.[92] It generally exists as a negative stereotype in
the public's subconscious[93] and yet has inspired fashion trends[94][95][96] for both males and females, as "biker
babes".[97][98][99] The appearance has even been exploited by the
fashion industry bringing it into legal conflict with some clubs.[100] A fetishistic look which conveys sex, danger,
rebelliousness, masculinity and working class values.[101]
The
biker style has influenced the look of other sub-cultures such as punk,[101] heavy metal,[102] gay leather subculture[103] and cybergoth fashion,[104] and, initially as an Americansubculture, has had an international influence.[105] Bikers, their clothing and motorcycles have
become cultural icons[106][107] of mythic status, their portrayal generally
exaggerating a criminal or deviant association exploited by the media for their
own often financial interests.[108]
On
television, the series Sons of Anarchy portrays a multiracial outlaw motorcycle club, founded mainly by Vietnam War veterans, which is involved in various crimes,
its interactions within their community and with underworld gangs. The show's
creator thought it was too obvious to have them be methamphetamine dealers, and
so instead they deal in illegal guns.[109][110]
Software
developers Rockstar North produced Grand Theft Auto IV: The Lost and Damned, a downloadable add-on to their main game,
where players can attempt to become the leader of an outlaw motorcycle gang.[111]
See also
Notes
1.
^ a b Drew, A. J.
(2002), The everything
motorcycle book: the one book you must have to buy, ride, and maintain your
motorcycle, Adams Media Corp, pp. 193–203, 277,ISBN 1-58062-554-1,
9781580625548
2.
^ a b Dulaney, William
L. (November 2005), "A Brief History
of "Outlaw" Motorcycle Clubs", International Journal of Motorcycle Studies
3.
^ a b Wolf, Daniel R.
(1992), The Rebels: a
brotherhood of outlaw bikers, University of Toronto Press, p. 4, ISBN 0-8020-7363-8,
9780802073631
4.
^ a b Joans, Barbara
(2001), Bike lust: Harleys,
women, and American society, Univ of Wisconsin Press, p. 15, ISBN 0-299-17354-2,
9780299173548
5.
^ a b Reynolds, Tom
(2001), Wild ride: how outlaw motorcycle myth conquered America, TV
Books, pp. 43–44, ISBN 1-57500-145-4,
9781575001456
7.
^ "Under and
Alone: The True Story of the Undercover Agent Who Infiltrated America's Most
Violent Outlaw Motorcycle Gang". Author William Queen, 2004
9.
^ Brown, Roland;
McDiarmid, Mac (2000), The Ultimate Motorcycle Encyclopedia:
Harley-Davidson, Ducati, Triumph, Honda, Kawasaki and All the Great Marques, Anness Publishing,
p. 352, ISBN 1-84038-898-6,
9781840388985
10.
^ Joans, Barbara
(2001), Bike Lust, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 5, ISBN 0-299-17354-2,
9780299173548, "As middle America rides and parties with the urban middle
class, neither discusses the skeleton in the closet. Neither draws attention to
the fact that much of the Harley mystique, most of the unwritten rules of the
road, and many of the values and ideals come from the unruly and bastard
parent, the outlaw club"
11.
^ a b Adler, Jeff
(2001-03-03), "The Fall of a Hells Angel Leader; Indictment Alleges
Spokesman's Charity Masks Drug Ring.", The Washington Post (Washington, D.C.): A.07
12.
^ Klugh, David (7
October 2009), "Motorcycle Gang Training For
Yakima", Kima Tv, "The problem with that according to
Steve Cook is that if you eat in local restaurants, drink in local bars or even
participate in local charity events, you already associate with them.
Charity
rides, toy donations... Cook has learned these are part of the disguise.
'What
they don't tell you is what they're doing the rest of the year. They're selling
drugs. They're stealing motorcycles. They're beating people up. They're
committing a laundry list of crimes.'"
13.
^ Renegades Do Good
Works, Too But Officials Say Biker Gang Is Simply Polishing Its Image. [Final
Edition] Richard S. Koonce, Virginian - Pilot ( Norfolk, Va. ) 1999-12-29, A.1
14.
^ Assoc, American
Motorcyclist (March 2003), "Gang fears hurt
charity ride", American Motorcyclist
15.
^ Austin, Paige;
Bjelland, Sonja (2005-12-06), "Gunfight blamed on bikers // About 150
people queried after violence at a toy giveaway", The Press -
Enterprise (Riverside, Calif.), "Witnesses blame tensions between
two rival motorcycle gangs for a shooting at a Christmas toy drive that left a
firefighter and two others injured."
16.
^ Austin, Paige
(December 8, 2005), "Neighbors want site of shooting shut
down", The Press - Enterprise (Riverside, Calif.): B.01,
"Next week Norco city leaders will consider revoking an operating permit
for Maverick Steakhouse where a Christmas toy drive Sunday ended in violence
after several gunmen fired into the crowd.
Witnesses say a fight between two rival biker clubs at the event
led to the shooting in which at least three people where injured, including a
Norco firefighter."
17.
^ Calligeros,
Marissa (June 22, 2009), "Bikie 'colours'
banned from Morcombe charity ride", Brisbane Times, "'Ride organisers
received an unlawful edict from police blocking the participation of riders
wearing clothing that identified them as members of some motorcycle clubs,' Mr
Walker said.
'You
can't say that to our members...these guys live for their patches.'
He
said bikies would never, ever ride without patches as a cardinal rule."
19.
^ Associated Press (9 November 2002),
"National Briefing Mid-Atlantic: Pennsylvania: Biker Gang Sues Over
Exclusion From Charity Event", New York Times (New York, N.Y.):
A.17, "The Warlocks motorcycle gang has filed a lawsuit accusing the
Philadelphia Police Department of preventing its members from participating in
a motorcycle parade to deliver toys to the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia
on Sunday. Joshua Briskin, a lawyer for the gang, said the Warlocks had taken
part in the event for 15 years. The suit, seeking unspecified compensation,
says the group's civil rights were violated."
20.
^ Five charged in
murders of eight Bandidos bikers- CTV.ca, June 10, 2006, Retrieved October 10,
2007
21.
^ The United States Court of
Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, Case Nos. 95-2829 and 95-2879; UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA, Plaintiff-Appellee, v. JOHN E. IRVIN and THOMAS E. PASTOR,
Defendants-Appellants
22.
^ Dougherty, C.I.
(1947-07-05), "Motorcyclists
Take Over Town, Many Injured", San Francisco Chronicle, retrieved
2007-10-24
23.
^ Dougherty, C.I.
(1947-07-06), "2000
'Gypsycycles' Chug Out of Town and the Natives Sigh 'Never Again'", San Francisco
Chronicle, retrieved 2007-10-24
24.
^ Dulaney, William
L. (November 2005), "A Brief History
of "Outlaw" Motorcycle Clubs", International Journal of Motorcycle Studies, "The Life story
caused something of a tumult around the country (Yates), and some authors have
asserted that the AMA subsequently released a press statement disclaiming
involvement in the Hollister event, stating that 99% of motorcyclists are good,
decent, law-abiding citizens, and that the AMA's ranks of motorcycle clubs were
not involved in the debacle (e.g., Reynolds, Thompson). However, the American
Motorcyclist Association has no record of ever releasing such as statement. Tom
Lindsay, the AMA's Public Information Director, states 'We [the American
Motorcyclist Association] acknowledge that the term 'one-percenter' has long
been (and likely will continue to be) attributed to the American Motorcyclist
Association, but we've been unable to attribute its original use to an AMA
official or published statement—so it's apocryphal.'"
28.
^ Thompson, Hunter
S. (1996), Hell's angels: a
strange and terrible saga, Random House, ISBN 0-345-41008-4
29.
^ a b Becker, Ronald
(1996), Criminal Investigation, Jones & Bartlett
Publishers, p. 432, ISBN 0-8342-1711-2
32.
^ Glover, Scott (22
October 2008), "Raid targets
Mongols motorcycle gang", Los Angeles Times, "There are also
patches associated with the gang's alleged sexual rituals. Members are awarded
wings of varying colors for engaging in sex acts with women at pre-arranged
'wing parties,' the indictment states. Members who have sex with a woman with
venereal disease are given green wings; those who have sex with a woman's
corpse are given purple wings, according to the indictment."
33.
^ Bourne, Craig
(2007), Philosophical Ridings: Motorcycles and the Meaning of Life,
Oneworld Publications, pp. 11–12, ISBN 1-85168-520-0
34.
^ Pratt, Alan R.
(2006), "Motorcycling,
Nihilism, and the Price of Cool; Nihilism and FTW Style", in Rollin, Harley-Davidson
and philosophy: full-throttle Aristotle; Volume 18 of Popular culture and
philosophy, Open Court Publishing, ISBN 0-8126-9595-X,
9780812695953, "'Dangerous Motorcycle Gangs,' a widely circulated two-hour
police course, notes that a white cross on a biker's colors is earned by
robbing a grave, a red cross by 'committing homosexual fellatio with a witness
present.' Green wings denote the wearer performed cunnilingus on a venereally
diseased woman and purple wing signify—get this!—oral sex with a dead woman!
(p. 32). As a rejection of values and an expression of nihilism, what could be
more aberrant and grossly offensive? And even if these interpretations are
inaccurate or fabricated by bikers themselves as a joke, they still reveal the
outrage that the outlaw biker expression of nihilism intended to inspire."
40.
^ [10] "Women in
Outlaw Motorcycle Clubs," from Constructions of Deviance: Social
Power, Context, and Interaction, p. 389-401, 1994, Patricia A and Peter
Adler, eds.
45.
^ a b c d e Depicting outlaw
motorcycle club women using anchored and unanchored research methodologies. van
den Eynde, Julie University of Queensland, Australia and Veno, Arthur Monash
University, Australia
46.
^ Watson, J. (1980).
Outlaw motorcyclists as an outgrowth of lower class values. Deviant Behaviour,
2, 31-48. (p. 42).
47.
^ Hopper, C. B.,
& Moore, J. (1990). Women in outlaw motorcycle gangs. Journal of
Contemporary Ethnography, 18, 363- 387.
48.
^ Women In Outlaw
Motorcycle Gangs. Hopper, Columbus B. And Moore, Johnny. Journal of
Contemporary Ethnography January 1990 vol. 18 no. 4 363-387
49.
^ Rappaport, J.
(2000). Community narratives: Tales of terror and joy. American Journal of
Community Psychology, 28, 1-24.
51.
^ a b Barker, Tom
(September, 2005), "One Percent Biker Clubs -- A Description",Trends
in Organized Crime (Springer New York) 9 (1):
111, doi:10.1007/s12117-005-1005-0, ISSN 1084-4791, "One percent biker clubs in the existing
literature have been described as all white clubs, however, there are at least
four black or interracial 1% biker clubs."
52.
^ Hopper, Columbus
B.; Moore, Johnny "Big John" (Summer 1983), "Hell on Wheels; The
Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs", Journal of American Culture (Bowling
Green, Ohio) 6(2): 58–9, doi:10.1111/j.1542-734X.1983.0602_58.x,
"Outlaw cyclists are generally male and between 21 and 45 years of age.
The average age for a club studied was 34. There are black gangs, white gangs,
and Mexican and other Spanish-speaking gangs. Although race does not appear to
be important as a creed or philosophical orientation to them, virtually all of
the clubs are racially unmixed. And it should be mentioned that bikers who are
in prisons, as prisoners have done generally, band together along racial lines
(Killinger and Cromwell, 1978)."
63.
^ Organized Crime in California - 2004 Annual
Report to the Legislature- California Department of Justice
69.
^ Comprehensively Combating Methamphetamine:
Impact on Health and the Environment- DEA Deputy Chief Joseph Rannazzisi,
congressional testimony on October 20, 2005
71.
^ Sonny Barger Kicks
Starts Life as a Free Man by Violating Parole- by Philip Martin, Phoenix New Times, December 2,
1992.
72.
^ Sonny Barger Kicks
Starts Life as a Free Man by Violating Parole- by Philip Martin, Phoenix New Times, December
2, 1992
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References
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the World's Most Feared Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs, the Bandidos Allen & Unwin, 2008, (ISBN 1-74175-463-1)
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§ Winterhalder, Edward, & De Clercq, Wil, The Assimilation: Rock Machine Become Bandidos –
Bikers United Against the Hells Angels, ECW Press, 2008 (ISBN 1-55022-824-2)
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